WORD FORMATION | Pembentukan Kata

WORD FORMATION ( Pembentukan Kata )

                Bahasa Inggris, seperti bahasa – bahasa lain (Arab, Indonesia dan lain – lain) mempunyai banyak sekali kosa kata yang dibentuk dari sebuah kata tertentu atau merupakan penggabungan dari dua kata atau lebih. Proses seperti ini dinamakan pembentukan kata (word formation).

Beberapa Aturan Umum dalam Pembentukan Kata

Dengan Cara Penggabungan (Compound)

1. Noun Compounds

                1.1  Subject and Verb Compounds

SUNRISE Subject  +   deverbal noun ~ the sun rises Very productive type	bee – sting catcall daybreak earth quake frostbite headache heartbeat landslide nightfall rainfall sound change tootache, etc.
RATTLENSNAKE Verb   +   subject ~ the snake rattles Only weakly productive type	crybaby driftwood drip coffe flashlight glowworm hangman playboy popcorn stinkweed tugboat turntable watchdog, etc.
DANCING GIRL Verb  noun in-ing  +  subject ~ the girl dances	cleaning woman firing squad flying machine investigating committe wading bird washing machine working party, etc.

                1.2  Verb and Object  Compounds

BLOODTEST Object  +  deverbal  noun ~X tes’s blood ~ the testing of blood ; suicide attempt ~ an attempt at suicide Moderately productive type. Self is a frequent first element.	count nouns book review crime report haircut handshake suicide attempt tax cut, etc.		(primarily) mass nouns birth – control dress – deisgn meat delivery office management steel production self-control self-destruction self-determination, etc.
SIGHTSEEING (of App 1.54, man-eating) ~ X object + agential noun in-er sees sight ~ the seeing of sights (Number is neutralized in the compound.) This type is very productive. It consists of abstract compounds refering to human activity town-planing, etc.	air conditioning book-reviewing book-keeping brainwashing dressmaking faultfinding housekeeping letter-writing oath-taking story-telling
TAXPAYER Object + agential noun in-er ~ X pays tax (es) Very productive type,wich designates concrete (usually human) agents. Note however diswasher, lawn-mower, penholder, record-player.    Neutralization of number is normal, of : cigar smoker. ~ X smokes cigars, etc.		cigar smoker computer-designer crime reporter gamekeeper gate-crasher hair-splitter languange teacher matchmaker radio-operator songwriter stokholder window-cleaner, etc.
CALL GIRL Verb  +  object ~ X calls the girl (-the girls on call)		drawbridge knitwear mincemeat pin-up girl punchcard push-button scarecrow treadmill, etc
CHEWING GUM Verbal noun in-ing  +  adverbial ~ X chews gum ~ gum for chewing		cooking apple drinking-water eating apple reading material spending money, etc

                1.3  Verb and Adverbial  Compounds

SWIMMING POOL Verbal noun in-ing  +  adverbial       (consisting of a prepositional phrase) ~ X swims in  the pool ~ a pool for swmimming A very productive type.	PLACE diving board (dive from a board) drinking cup (drink out of a cup) freezing point (freeze at a point) frying pan (Bre: fry in a pan) hiding-place (hide in a place) living room (live in a room) typing paper (type on paper) waiting room (wait in a room) writing desk (write at a desk) OTHER adding machine (add with a machine)  baking powder (bake with powder) carving knife (carve with a knife) sewing machine (sew with a machine) walking stick (walk with a stick) washing machine (wash with  machine), etc.
DAYDREAMING Adverbial  +  abstract verbal noun in-ing - X dreams - dreaming	PLACE churchgoing (go to church) horse riding (ride on a horse) rope-dancing (dance on a rope) sun-bathing (bathe in the sun) TIME Sleepwalking (walk in one’s sleep) OTHER fly-fishing (fish with a fly) handwriting (write by  hand) shadow-boxing (box against a shadow), etc.
BABY-SITTER Adverbial  +  agential noun in –er ~ X sits with the baby Moderately productive type	PLACE blackswimmer (swim on the black) city-dweller (dwell in the city) factory-worker (work  in a factory) housebreaker (break into a house) playgoer (go to a play) rope-dancer (dance on a rope) sun-bather (bathe in the sun) theatre-goer (go to the theatre) TIME daydreamer (dream during the day), etc.
HOMEWROK Adverbial  +  deverbal noun ~ X works at home Moderately productive type. Most examples are countables :    boat-rides, etc. Compare gunfight here with gunfighting, which is of the daydreaming type.	PLACE boat-ride (ride in a boat) field-work (work in the field) home-work (work at home) table talk (talk at the table) moon walk (walk on the moon) TIME daydream (dream during the day) night flight (fly during the night) OTHER gunflight (fight with a gun) smallpox vaccination (vaccinate against smallpox) tax-exemption (exempt from tax) thelephone call (call on the thelephone), etc.
SEARCHLIGHT Verb  +  adverbial ~ X searches with a light	PLACE dance hall (dance in a hall) springboard (spring from a board) workbench (work at bench) OTHER grindstone (grind with a stone) plaything (play with a thing), etc.

                1.4  Verbaless  Compounds

WINDMILL Noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun1 [powers / operates] noun2; ~ the wind powers the mill TOY FACTORY ~ noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun1 [powers / operates] noun2; ~ the factory produces toys	air-brake air rifle cable car hidrogen bomb motorcycle steam engine, etc. honey – bee oil well power plant silkworm tear gas textile mill water pistol, etc
BLOODSTAIN noun1  +  noun2 noun1 [powers / yields] noun2; ~ the blood produces stains	bloodstain cane sugar eiderdown food poisoning gaslight hay fever sawdust tortoise-shell water spot whalebone, etc.
DOORKNOB noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun1 [has] noun2 ~ the door has a knob A very productive type. noun1 is inanimate. Animate nouns have the –s genitive : compare the table leg with the boy’s leg.	arrowhead bedpost bottleneck (metaphorical) cartwheel piano keys shirt-sleeves table leg telephone receiver television screen window-pane, etc.
GIRL-FRIEND noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun2 [is] noun1 ~ the friend is  a girl noun1 refers to a subspecies of the species donated by	animate nouns drummer boy killer shark manservant pussy-cat woman writer, etc.	inanimate nouns blinker light feeder bus oak tree pine tree tape measure, etc.
DARKROOM Adjective  +  noun ~ noun [is] adjective ~ the room is dark	blackboard blueprint double-talk dry-dock handyman hothouse longboat madman, etc.
FROGMAN noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun2 [is like] noun1 ~ the man is like a frog A very productive type.	butter-bean catfish dragonfly goldfish kettledrum sandwich-man tissue paper T~square, etc.
SNOWLAKE noun1  +  noun2 ~ noun2 [is for] noun1 ~ the tray is for ash This highly productive type expresses purpose. It is similar to th swimming pool and searchlight types, which however have sentential analogues with verbs.	birdcage breakfast time coffee time cough drops cowshed doghouse facecloth fire engine fish-pond flowerbed flypaper safety belt tearoom, etc.

Note : The difference beetween teacup ( ~ ’cup for tea’) and cup ot tea (~ ‘ cup containing tea ‘) is paralleled in flowerpot, maatchbox, winebottle, and soup plate, etc.

                1.5  Bahuvrihi  Compounds

PAPERBACK Is a  ‘bahuvrihi compound’in that it names an entire thing by specifying some feature of it. Thus a paperback is a’book which has a paper back’, an egghead is ‘a person who has a head like an egg’, ie, ‘an intelectual’.

noun  +  noun birdbrain blockhead butterfingers featherbrain featherweight hunchback pot-belly, etc

adjective  +  noun bluebell fathead hardhat (‘contruction worker) hardtop heavyweight highbrow loudmouth paleface redcap, etc

2. Adjective Compounds

                2.1  Verb and Object  Compounds

MAN – EATING Object  +  -ing participle ~ X eats men Produvctive type. Self is a frequent first element.

breathtaking fact-finding heart-breaking life-giving record-breaking self-defeating self-justifying, etc.

                2.2  Verb and Adverbial  Compounds

OCEAN-GOING Adverbial  +  -ing paticiple ~ X goes across oceans	fist-fighting law-abiding lip-sucking mouth-watering, etc
HEARTFELT Adverbial  +  -ed participle ~ X  feels it in the library The type is particulary productive when the noun has agential meaning and consists of self- : self-employed, self-taught.	airbone custom-built handmade home-brewed home-made suntanned thunder-struck town-bred weather-beaten, etc.
HARD-WORKING Adjective / adverb + -ing participle ~ X works hard	easy-going everlasting far-reaching good-looking high-sounding well-meaning, etc.
QUICK-FROZEN Adjective / adverb + -ed participle ~ X is frozen quickly	far-fatched new-laid true-born well-meant widespread, etc.

Note :

[a] The idiomatic isolation of some compounds of this type is evident in the replacement of lexical items in sentetial analogues, eg : NEW –laid (eggs) ~ X has laid (the eggs) RECENTLY.

[b] The superficially similar adjective compounds well – meant and well-behaved differ in respect of voice : a well-meant remark ~ a remark that is meant well (passive), but a well-behaved person ~a person that behaves well (active).

                2.3  Verbless Compounds

CLASS-CONSCIOUS Noun (denoting respect) + adjective ~ conscious with respect to class Very productive type with certain	duty-free tax-free dustproof fireproof foolproof
Adjectives that are frequently complemented by prep + noun, e.g :free, proof, sick, light, weary.	airsick carsick homesick air-tight waterflight foor-weary war-weary, etc.
GRASS-GREEN Noun  +  adjective      - as adjective as noun      - adjective like noun	ash-blonde bottle-green brick red midnight blue ocean green sea-green, etc.
WEDISH-AMERICAN   (contacts) Adjective1 + adjective2 in a coordinating relationship ~ (contacts between) Swedish and American (people) In many such compounds, the first elements is not a sparate word and has a linking –o-.	bitter-sweet deaf-mute phonetic-syntatic Anglo-American Franco-German socio-economic psycholinguistic, etc.

Note

In compounds used as premodifiers of the word dictionary, the first adjective indicates the language used as the basis for the dictionary. For example, an English French dictionary translates words from English into French.

3. Verb Compounds

                Verb compounds include a BACK-FORMTION like baby-sit, which is formed from baby-sitting and baby-sitter. This process is  a reversal of the normal trend of word – formation, by which a new word is formed by adding rather than subtracting elements; is the vebal nouns singer and singing are taken to be formed from the verb sing. But the name ‘back formation’ draws attention  to  purely historical order of development.

SIGHTSEE Object  +  verb ~ X sees sights	brain-wash fire-watch house-hunt housekeep lip-read, etc.
SPRING-CLEAN Adverbial  +  verb ~ X cleans in the spring	baby-sit bottle-feed chain-smoke day-dream sleep-walk spring-clean whip-lash window-shop, etc.

Nah, itulah pembahasan mengenai Word Formation ( Pembentukan Kata ) ...

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Kesalahan Penempatan Modifier / Penjelas | Modifier Problems

MODIFIER PROBLEMS (Kesalahan Penempatan Modifier / Penjelas)

                 Terkadang kita sering bingung atau bahkan salah dalam meletakkan sebuah penjelas atau modifier, nah ada caranya lohh. Yuk langsung saja baca dan nambah ilmu ...

    1.  Misplaced Modifiers

                A modifier adalah sekelompok kata yang memberi informasi tambahan (penjelas) kepada kata lain dalam suatu kalimat.

                Modifier harus diletakkan sedekat mungkin dengan kata yang diberi penjelasan. Hal ini sangat penting  untuk diperhatikan, sebab perubahan letak a modifier akan mengubah arti suatu kalimat.

       Perhatikan beberapa contoh berikut :

                e.g ( contoh ) :

1. I told Noura only what I had done.      (I didn’t tell him anything else.) 2.  I told only Noura what I had done.      (I didn’t tell anybody else.) 3. Only I told Noura what I had done.      (Nobody else told Noura.) 4. I told Noura only what I had done.      (No one else did it.)

     Ke-empat kalimat tersebut mempunyai arti yang berbeda karena letak modifier (only) yang berubah – ubah.

     Perhatikan kalimat – kalimat berikut :

     1. I worked for my father, who owns a sawmill, during the summer.

Kata (phrase) during the summer, memberi keterangan terhadap apa ? dalam kalimat tersebut tidak jelas. Maka letaknya harus dipindah, diletakkan sedekat mungkin pada kata yang diterangkan, sehingga menjadi :

        During the summer, I worked for my father, who owns a sawmill.

     2. Fatimah said on her way out she would give the memo to Fahri.

Did Fatimah say it on her way out ? or is she going to deliver the memo on her way out ? 

Untuk menghindari ketidak jelasan, kita dapat memindahkan letak modifier sesuai dengan arti yang kita inginkan

        - On her way out, Fatimah said she would give the memo to Fahri.

        - Fatimah said she would give the memo to Fahri on her way out.

Hati – hatilah dengan kata – kata berikut :

Almost     nearly     just     only     even     hardly     merely     scarcely

Letakkan kata – kata tersebut sebelum kata yang diterangkan olehnya.

    e.g ( contoh ) :

Salah Benar Salah Benar Salah Benar Salah Benar Salah Benar

:  I almost ate the whole thing. :  I ate almost the whole thing. :  She just wants to take one class. :  She wants to take just one class. :  We only have four hours to finish this paper. :  We have only four hours to finish this paper. :  That house nearly cost sixty thousand dollars. :  That house cost nearly sixty thousand dollars. :  She was so quite that hardly he noticed her. :  She was so quite that he hardly noticed her.

          Perhatikan kalimat – kalimat berikut :

       A.     1. Only he said he loved her.

                     (No one else said it.)

                2. He only said he loved her.

                     (He said nothing else.)

                3. He said only he loved her.

                     (No one else loved her.)

                4. He said he only loved her.

                     (Loving her was his sole activity.)

                5. He said he loved only her.

                     (He loved no one else.)

       B.     1. Ali held the cat with a smile.

                    (Who was smiling ? Ali or  the cat ?)

                    - With a smile on his face, li held the cat.

                2. Budi discovered a mushroom walking through the garden.

                    (Who was walking ?)

                    - Walking through the garden, Budi discovered a mushroom.

                3. Last night I went to see my manager in a new skirt.

                    (Who was wearing the new skirt ?)

                    - Last night I put on my new skirt and went to see my manager.

                    (Clearly the speaker was wearing the new skirt.)

    2. Dangling Modifier (Illogical Participal Modifier)

                A dangling modifier terjadi bila tidak ada kata yang tepat yang diberi keterangan (penjelas) oleh modifier daam suatu kalimat, sehingga kalimat tersebut menjadi tidak masuk akal (illogical modifier).

         e.g ( contoh ) :

         1. salah        :  After jumping out of a boat, the shark bit the man.

                                             (We understand that the actual subject of the verb jumping is the man: therefore, immediately after comma, we must mention the man .

                                       benar        : After jumping out of a boat, the man was bitten by a shark.

      Untuk menghindari terjadinya Dangling Modifier, maka subyek dari main clause harus sama dengan subject yang dimaksud dalam introductory phrase; dengan kata lain, the introductory phrase menerangkan subject dari main clauses.

         Perhatikan kaimat – kalimat berikut ini :

    Introductory phrase          main clause

1. Looking at his watch,    Budi got up and left.

                                            Subject

                Who looked at his watch ? Budi

                Who got up and left ? Budi

    Introductory phrase             main clause

2. Compared to his father,   Ali is a tall man.

                                            Subject

                Who is compared to his father ? Ali

                Who is a tall man ? Ali

      Introductory phrase                    main clause

3. To make a collect phone call,  Jono must speak to the operator.

                                                    Subject

                Who is making a collect phone call ? Jono

                Who must speak to the operator ? Jono

         Seringkali introductory phrase didahului oleh preposisi berikut ini :

by       upon       before      after       while

                e.g :

                1. After eating dinner, she cleaned the table.

                2. By working ten hours a day for five days, we can have a long weekend.

                3. While reviewing for the test, Fatimah  realized that she had forgotten to return her books.

                                Jika introductory phrase berupa (verb + ing) ,maka waktu (tense) dari kalimat ditentukan oleh tense dari kata kerja dalam main clause, dua kejadian (peristiwa) biasanya terjadi secara bersama – sama.

               

( preposition )   +   ( noun )   +  ( verb  +  ing ).....   +  noun   +   verb

                e.g ( contoh ) :

                Present  :   Practicing her swing every day, Umar hopes to get a job as a golf instructor.

                Past        :   Having a terrible toothache, Jono called the dentist for an appointment.

                Future   :   Finishing the letter tonight, Ani will mail it tomorrow morning.

                Bentuk Perfect (having + past participle) digunakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa tindakan (kejadian) pada introductory phrase dilakukan (terjadi) sebelum tindakan (kejadian) pada main clause.

( not )    +    having   +    past   participle .....   +    noun   +    verb

               e.g ( contoh ) :

                1. Having finished their supper, the boys went out to play.

                    (After the boys had finished supper, ............)

                2. Having written his composition, Ali handed it to her teacher.

                    (After Ali had written ...............)

                3. Not having read the book, she could not answer the question.

                    (Because she had not read the book............)

                     Introductory Phrase (participal phrase) juga dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan dalam bentuk pasif.

( not )   +   having  been   +   ( past participle ) .....  +   noun   +   verb .....

                e.g ( contoh ) :

                1. Having been notified by the court, Elisa reported for jury duty.

                     (After Elisa had been notified, ........ )

                2. Having been delayed by the snowstorm, Rudi and I missed our connecting flight.

                     (After we had been delayed, ......... )

                3. Not having been notified of the change in meeting times, Ali arrived late.

                     (Because he had not been notified, ...............)

           Nah, itulah pembahasan mengenai Kesalahan Penempatan Modifier / Penjelas | Modifier Problems ...

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Apa itu Antecedent ? | Arti Macam dan Contoh

Arti Macam dan Contoh ANTECEDENT

Apa sih itu antecedent ? apa fungsinya di dalam sebuah kalimat ?

yuk langsung saja lihat pembahasannya berikut ini .....

 Antecedent adalah kata yang diacu ( tempat kembali ) atau ditunjuk oleh pronoun ( kata ganti ).

                e.g ( contoh ) :

                1. I read a book. It was interesting.

                     ( pronoun it mengacu kepada noun yaitu a book, maka a book disebut antecedent dari it ).

                2. Fatimah attends her class reunion.

                     ( Fatimah adalah antecedent dari her ).

                3. Budi was here yesterday, but today he isn’t.

                    ( Budi adalah antecedent dari he ).

                4. Billa is one of my students.

                     They are helping me paint my house.

                      Billa is one of my students who is helping me paint my house.

                     ( One of my students adalah antecedent dari relative pronoun ‘ who ’ ).

       Nah, itulah pembahasan mengenai Arti Macam dan Contoh dari Antecedent ...

Terima kasih telah berkunjung, Semoga bermanfaat : ) ...

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